Female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C), sometimes also referred to as female circumcision, describes a range of practices involving cutting, removing, and sometimes sewing up external female genitalia for nonmedical reasons. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that between 100 and 140 million girls and women worldwide have undergone FGM/C and that three million girls in Africa alone are at risk each year. While strongly endorsed in many cultures, FGM/C has no known health benefits, but can cause physical and psychological trauma, both immediately and long-term, as well as difficulties during childbirth. FGM/C reflects deep-rooted gender-based inequalities, constitutes extreme discrimination against girls and women, and violates numerous human rights.
Population Council focus
The Council has conducted research and provided technical assistance to national organizations for over 15 years in Burkina Faso, Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea, Indonesia, Kenya, Mali, Oman, Senegal, and the Sudan, as well as advising numerous international organizations such as the WHO, UNICEF, UNFPA, and USAID. The Council documents the extent of FGM/C, the various types of genital cutting and resulting complications, and has long been a leader in developing, testing, and evaluating interventions encouraging its abandonment.
Population Council impact
- The Council was instrumental in creating the International Network to Analyze, Communicate, and Transform the Campaign Against FGC/FGM/FC (INTACT), which promotes high-quality research, widespread dissemination of findings through its Web site, and strengthens links between researchers and program and policy leaders.
- Council staff have partnered with the NGO Tostan to systematically document and evaluate its groundbreaking community empowerment intervention in Senegal and Burkina Faso. Lessons learned through Council research have informed UN organizations’ decisions to recommend this model as a best practice.
- In Egypt, the Council has undertaken numerous research studies over many years to inform the Government of Egypt and NGOs engaged in seeking an end to the practice.
- In Kenya, the Council has recently completed a national situation analysis of implemented interventions that is currently informing development of a national plan of action.
Projects
Encouraging the Abandonment of Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C) Among the Somali of Kenya (more)
The Council is conducting research in Kenya to inform the design and implementation of interventions to encourage abandonment of FGM/C.
(1/2009 - 1/2010)
Kenya
Evaluation of Centre Djoliba’s Activities Related to the Fight Against FGM/C in Mali (more)
Council researchers evaluated a human- and child-rights–based approach undertaken by the Centre Djoliba in Mali to encourage the abandonment of female genital mutilation/cutting.
(1/2008 - 8/2008)
Mali
Managing and Preventing Female Genital Cutting (FGC) Among the Somali Community in Kenya (more)
Council research in Kenya worked to strengthen antenatal and delivery services in health facilities used by Somali women, among whom female genital cutting is almost universal; the project also includes a community component to encourage discussion and abandonment of FGC.
(6/2005 - 2/2008)
Kenya
Technical Cooperation with the Ministry of Health (MOH)/German Agency for Technical Co-operation (GTZ) Anti-Female Genital Cutting (FGC) Project in Kenya (more)
Council researchers provided technical assistance in support of eliminating FGM/C in Kenya.
(6/2003 - 10/2007)
Kenya
Resources
Female genital mutilation practices in Kenya: The role of alternative rites of passage. A case study of Kisii and Kuria districts (PDF)
Oloo,Habil; Wanjiru,Monica; Newell-Jones,Katy
Publication date: 2011
National efforts toward FGM-free villages in Egypt: The evidence of impact (PDF)
Barsoum,Ghada; Rifaat,Nadia; El-Gibaly,Omaima; Elwan,Nihal; Forcier,Natalie
Poverty, Gender, and Youth Working Paper (no. 22)
Publication date: 2011
Ethiopia gender survey: A study in seven regions (PDF)
Erulkar,Annabel S.; Ferede,Abebaw; Ambelu,Worku; Girma,Woldemariam; Amdemikael,Helen; GebreMedhi,Behailu; Legesse,Berhanu; Tameru,Ayehualem; Teferi,Messay
Report
Publication date: 2010
Ethiopia young adult survey: A study in seven regions (PDF)
Erulkar,Annabel S.; Ferede,Abebaw; Ambelu,Worku; Girma,Woldemariam; Amdemikael,Helen; GebreMedhi,Behailu; Legesse,Berhanu; Tameru,Ayehualem; Teferi,Messay
Publication date: 2010
A religious oriented approach to addressing female genital mutilation/cutting among the Somali community of Wajir, Kenya (PDF)
Sheikh Abdi,Maryam; Askew,Ian
FRONTIERS Report (updated March 2009)
Publication date: 2009
Female genital mutilation/cutting: Change is possible (PDF) (HTML)
FRONTIERS Legacy Themes
Publication date: 2009
The effectiveness of a community-based education program on abandoning female genital mutilation/cutting in Senegal (abstract)
Diop,Nafissatou J.; Askew,Ian
Studies in Family Planning 40(4): 307-318
Publication date: 2009
Toward FGM-free villages in Egypt: A mid-term evaluation and documentation of the FGM-free village project (PDF)
Barsoum,Ghada; Rifaat,Nadia; El-Gibaly,Omaima; Elwan,Nihal; Forcier,Natalie
Publication date: 2009
"Female genital mutilation/cutting: Publications on research in FGM/C - Mutilations génitales féminines/Excision: Publications sur la recherche concernant l'excision," FRONTIERS CD-ROM
Publication date: 2008
Delinking female genital mutilation/cutting from Islam
(PDF)
Lethome Asmani,Ibrahim; Sheikh Abdi,Maryam
Publication date: 2008
Analyse de l'Evolution de la pratique de l'Excision au Burkina Faso [Analysis of the evolution of the practice of female genital mutilation/cutting in Burkina Faso]
Diop,Nafissatou J.; Congo,Zakari; Ouedraogo,Aina; Sawadogo,Alphosine; Saloucou,Lydia; Tamini,Ida
Rapport Final
Publication date: 2008
Analysis of the evolution of the practice of female genital mutilation/cutting in Burkina Faso [Summary in English; full report in French] (PDF)
Diop,Nafissatou J.; Congo,Zakari; Ouedraogo,Aina; Sawadogo,Alphosine; Saloucou,Lydia; Tamini,Ida
FRONTIERS Final Report
Publication date: 2008
Burkina Faso: Political will, law enforcement, and educational campaigns appear to be reducing FGM/C (PDF)
FRONTIERS OR Summary (no. 72)
Publication date: 2008
Dissocier les mutilations génitales féminines de l'Islam (PDF)
Lethome Asmani,Ibrahim; Sheikh Abdi,Maryam
Publication date: 2008
Evaluation and documentation of the FGM-Free Village Model
Barsoum,Ghada
Report
Publication date: 2008
Evaluation of the long-term impact of the TOSTAN programme on the abandonment of FGM/C and early marriage: Results from a qualitative study in Senegal (PDF)
Diop,Nafissatou J.; Moreau,Amadou; Benga,Helene
FRONTIERS Final Report
Publication date: 2008
Kenya: Islamic scholars find no religious justification for FGM/C (PDF)
FRONTIERS OR Summary (no. 73)
Publication date: 2008
Kenya: Training can enhance providers' management of FGM/C and willingness to advocate against the practice (PDF)
FRONTIERS OR Summary (no. 71)
Publication date: 2008
Lutte contre la pratique de l'excision au Mali: De l'approche santé à l'approche basée sur les droits de l'enfant-Rapport d'Evaluation du Programme du Centre Djoliba (PDF)
Diagne,Anta Fall
(executive summary in English; report in French)
Publication date: 2008
Managing and preventing female genital cutting (FGM/C) among the Somali community in Kenya (PDF)
Sheikh Abdi,Maryam; Jaldesa,Guyo; Askew,Ian
FRONTIERS Final Report
Publication date: 2008
Reducing FGM/C among Somali girls in Kenya (PDF)
Population Briefs 14(2)
Publication date: 2008
Réponse d'un pays à la lutte contre l'excision
FRONTIERES Résumés de Recherche Opérationnelle
Publication date: 2008
Senegal: Education and public declarations contribute to Tostan's success (PDF)
FRONTIERS OR Summary (no. 70)
Publication date: 2008
Technical assistance to the interagency coordination group seeking to reduce female genital mutilation/cutting (PDF)
Diop,Nafissatou J.
FRONTIERS Final Report
Publication date: 2008
Technical cooperation with the MOH/GTZ Anti-FGM/C Project in Kenya
Evelia,Humphres; Sheikh Abdi,Maryam; Askew,Ian
FRONTIERS Final Report
Publication date: 2008
Contributing towards efforts to abandon female genital mutilation/cutting in Kenya: A situation analysis (PDF)
Evelia,Humphres; Sheikh Abdi,Maryam; Njue,Carolyne; Askew,Ian
Publication date: 2007
Kenya: Begin community dialogue on FGM/C by discussing cultural justification (PDF)
FRONTIERS OR Summary (no. 59)
Publication date: 2007
Kenya: Mobilize health care providers to advocate against FGM/C (PDF)
FRONTIERS OR Summary (no. 60)
Publication date: 2007
Management of complications, pregnancy, childbirth and the postpartum period in the presence of FGM/C (PDF)
Kenya Ministry of Health
Publication date: 2007
Review of FRONTIERS program FGC-related activities, February 2007 (PDF)
Publication date: 2007
Sénégal: L'éducation à base communautaire et les Declarations Publiques ont contribué à l'Abandon de l'Excision
FRONTIERES Résumés de Recherche Opérationnelle (no. 54)
Publication date: 2007
Study of the effectiveness of training Malian social and health agents in female genital cutting issues and in educating their clients (PDF)
Diop,Nafissatou J.; Traore,Fatoumata; Diallo,Habibatou; Traore,Ousmane; Toure,Aissa Haidara; Diallo,Youssouf; Sangare,Madina; Keita,Fatoumata Tandia; Toure,Attaher
Final report
Publication date: 2007
Accelerating the abandonment of female genital cutting: Community change to support human rights (PDF)
Joyce,Stephanie
USAID Maximizing Access and Quality (MAQ) Technical Brief
Publication date: 2006
Analyse de l'evolution de la pratique de l'excision au Burkina Faso: L'environment institutionel, politique et programmatique de la lutte contre la pratique de l'excision [Analysis of the evolution of the practice of female genital mutilation/cutting in Burkina Faso: Institutional, political, and programmatic environment surrounding female genital mutilation/cutting] (PDF)
Diop,Nafissatou J.; Congo,Zakari; Ouedraogo,Aina; Sawadogo,Alphosine; Saloucou,Lydia; Tamini,Ida
Publication date: 2006
Female genital mutilation in Kenya: Evidence links health workers to FGM (PDF)
Population Council; GTZ
Policy brief
Publication date: 2006
Informations sur la mutilation génitale féminine : Quelle est la situation ? Quels sont les besoins ? Évaluation (juillet 2004) (PDF)
Publication date: 2006
Reproductive health update trainings for health workers in North Eastern Province, Garissa (PDF)
Kenya Ministry of Health; Population Council
Publication date: 2006
Review of FRONTIERS program FGC-related activities, May 2006 (PDF)
Publication date: 2006
Strategies for encouraging the abandonment of female genital cutting in West Africa: Experiences from Senegal, Burkina Faso, and Mali
Diop,Nafissatou J.; Askew,Ian; Abusharaf,Rogaia Mustafa
from Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives, pp. 125-141
Publication date: 2006
Technical assistance to organizations in Guinea seeking to reduce female genital cutting (PDF)
Diop,Nafissatou J.
FRONTIERS Final Report
Publication date: 2006
Advancing knowledge of psycho-sexual effects of female genital cutting: Assessing the evidence
Bur,Mona
Seminar report
Publication date: 2005
At the intersection of health, social well-being and human rights: CARE's experiences working with communities toward abandonment of female genital cutting (FGC) (PDF)
Rajadurai,Henrietta; Igras,Susan
CARE report
Publication date: 2005
Burkina Faso: Community education program scaled-up in Burkina Faso (PDF)
FRONTIERS OR Summary (no. 55)
Publication date: 2005
Female genital cutting among the Somali of Kenya and management of its complications (PDF)
Jaldesa,Guyo; Askew,Ian; Njue,Carolyne; Wanjiru,Monica
FRONTIERS Final Report
Publication date: 2005
Methodological issues in measuring the impact of interventions against female genital cutting (abstract) (PDF)
Askew,Ian
Culture, Health and Sexuality 7(5): 463-477
Publication date: 2005
Reaching the tipping point against female genital mutilation (PDF)
Shaaban,Layla M.; Harbison,Sarah
Lancet 366(9483): 347-349
Publication date: 2005
Senegal: Community education program increases dialogue on FGC (PDF)
FRONTIERS OR Summary (no. 54)
Publication date: 2005
Sénégal: Le programme d'Education communautaire élargit le dialogue sur l'excision
FRONTIERES Résumés de Recherche Opérationnelle
Publication date: 2005
Toward the abandonment of female genital cutting: Advancing research, communication and collaboration
Sedgh,Gilda; Jackson,Elizabeth F.; Ibrahim,Barbara L.
Culture, Health and Sexuality 7(5): 425-427
Publication date: 2005
Experience from a community-based education program in Burkina Faso: The Tostan program (PDF)
Ouoba,Djingri; Congo,Zakari; Diop,Nafissatou J.; Melching,Molly; Banza,Baya; Guiella,Georges; Baumgarten,Inge
FRONTIERS Final Report
Publication date: 2004
Information on female genital cutting: What is out there? What is needed? An assessment (PDF)
Feldman-Jacobs,Charlotte
Publication date: 2004
Le Programme de Tostan: Evaluation d'un programme d'éducation de base
Diop,Nafissatou J.; Faye,Modou Mbacke; Moreau,Amadou; Cabral,Jacqueline; Benga,Helene; Cisse,Fatou; Mane,Babacar
FRONTIERS Final Report
Publication date: 2004
Medicalization of female genital cutting among the Abagusii in Nyanza Province, Kenya (PDF)
Njue,Carolyne; Askew,Ian
FRONTIERS Final Report
Publication date: 2004
Medicalization of FGC among the Abagusii, Kenya
Africa Region Research Summary
Publication date: 2004
Potential data biases in studies exposed (PDF)
Population Briefs 10(1)
Publication date: 2004
Testing the effectiveness of integrating community-based approaches for encouraging abandonment of female genital cutting into CARE's reproductive health programs in Ethiopia and Kenya (PDF)
Chege,Jane; Askew,Ian; Igras,Susan; Mutesh,Jacinta K.
FRONTIERS Final Report
Publication date: 2004
The Tostan program: Evaluation of a community Based education program in Senegal (PDF)
Diop,Nafissatou J.; Faye,Modou Mbacke; Moreau,Amadou; Cabral,Jacqueline; Benga,Helene; Cisse,Fatou; Mane,Babacar; Baumgarten,Inge; Melching,Molly
FRONTIERS Final Report
Publication date: 2004
Understanding the practice of female genital cutting among the Somali of Kenya, and the management of its complications
Africa Region Research Summary
Publication date: 2004
Evaluation of the TOSTAN approach in Kolda, Senegal
Research Update no. 5
Publication date: 2003
Female circumcision in Indonesia. Extent, implications and possible interventions to uphold women's health rights (PDF)
Budiharsana,Meiwita P.; Amaliah,Lila; Utomo,Budi; Erwinia
Research report
Publication date: 2003
Inconsistent reporting of female genital cutting status in northern Ghana: Explanatory factors and analytical consequences (abstract) (PDF)
Jackson,Elizabeth F.; Akweongo,Patricia; Sakeah,Evelyn; Hodgson,Abraham; Asuru,Rofina; Phillips,James F.
Studies in Family Planning 34(3): 200-210
Publication date: 2003
Replication of the TOSTAN Programme in Burkina Faso: How 23 villages participated in a human rights-based education programme and abandoned the practice of female genital cutting in Burkina Faso (PDF) (HTML)
Diop,Nafissatou J.; Bagde,Edmond; Ouoba,Djingri; Melching,Molly
Publication date: 2003
Women's denial of having experienced female genital cutting in northern Ghana: Explanatory factors and consequences for analysis of survey data (PDF)
Jackson,Elizabeth F.; Akweongo,Patricia; Sakeah,Evelyn; Hodgson,Abraham; Asuru,Rofina; Phillips,James F.
Policy Research Division Working Paper (no. 178)
Publication date: 2003
Evaluation d'un programme d'éducation à base communautaire pour améliorer la santé de la reproduction des femmes et lutter contre l'excision à Kolda: Enquête de base [Assessment of a community-based educational program to improve women's reproductive health and reduce female genital cutting in Kolda: Baseline study]
Diop,Nafissatou J.
Publication date: 2002
Kenya: Community sensitization must precede alternative coming-of-age rite (PDF)
FRONTIERS OR Summary (no. 27)
Publication date: 2002
L'approche TOSTAN inspire 23 villages au Burkina Faso
Research Update no. 3 Juillet 2002
Publication date: 2002
Tester un programme d'éducation à base communautaire pour améliorer la santé de la reproduction des femmes et lutter contre l'excision au Bazéga au Burkina Faso: Enquête de base. [Pilot-testing a community-based educational program to improve women's reproductive health and reduce female genital cutting in Bazega, Burkina Faso: Baseline study]
Diop,Nafissatou J.
Publication date: 2002
The decline of female circumcision in Egypt: Evidence and interpretation (abstract)
El-Gibaly,Omaima; Ibrahim,Barbara L.; Mensch,Barbara S.; Clark,Wesley H.
Social Science and Medicine 54(2): 205-220
Publication date: 2002
The TOSTAN approach inspires 23 villages in Burkina Faso
Research Update
Publication date: 2002
Using operations research to strengthen programmes for encouraging abandonment of female genital cutting. Report of a consultative meeting on methodological issues for FGC Research, April 9-11, 2002. Nairobi, Kenya (PDF)
FRONTIERS Report
Publication date: 2002
An assessment of the alternative rites approach for encouraging abandonment of female genital mutilation in Kenya (PDF)
Chege,Jane; Askew,Ian; Liku,Jennifer
FRONTIERS Final Report
Publication date: 2001
FGC in Egypt: Myths and realities exposed
Asia and Near East Operations Research and Technical Assistance Project Report
Publication date: 2001
La stratégie de Tostan: Evaluation du programme d'éducation à base communautaire. [The Tostan strategy: Evaluation of a community-based education program]
Diop,Nafissatou J.; Faye,Modou Mbacke; Benga,Helene; Cisse,Fatou; Mane,Babacar; Baumgarten,Inge; Melching,Molly
Publication date: 2001
Burkina Faso and Mali: Female genital cutting harms women's health (PDF)
FRONTIERS OR Summary (no. 10)
Publication date: 2000
Burkina Faso et Mali: L'excision compromet la santé des femmes [Female genital cutting harms women's health] (PDF)
FRONTIERES Résumés de Recherche Opérationnelle (no. 10)
Publication date: 2000
Critical analysis of interventions against FGC in Egypt (PDF)
Abdel-Tawab,Nahla; Hegazi,Sahar
FRONTIERS Final Report
Publication date: 2000
Egypt: NGOs need to join forces to end FGC (PDF)
FRONTIERS OR Summary (no. 14)
Publication date: 2000
Egypt: NGOs need to join forces to end FGC [Arabic] (PDF)
FRONTIERS OR Summary (no. 14)
Publication date: 2000
Egypte: Les ONG doivent unir leurs forces pour éradiquer l'excision (PDF)
FRONTIERES Résumés de Recherche Opérationnelle (no. 14)
Publication date: 2000
Increasing the coverage of reproductive health issues in the Egyptian press (PDF)
Hegazi,Sahar; Khalifa,Mona
FRONTIERS Final Report
Publication date: 2000
Mali: Empower health workers to advocate against female genital cutting (PDF)
FRONTIERS OR Summary (no. 11)
Publication date: 2000
Mali: FGC excisors persist despite entreaties (PDF)
FRONTIERS OR Summary (no. 2)
Publication date: 2000
Mali: Les exciseuses persistent malgré les supplications (PDF)
FRONTIERES Résumés de Recherche Opérationnelle (no. 2)
Publication date: 2000
Mali: Pour une plus grande responsabilisation des agents de santé dans le plaidoyer contre l'excision (PDF)
FRONTIERES Résumés de Recherche Opérationnelle (no. 11)
Publication date: 2000
The Tostan story: Breakthrough in Senegal ending female genital cutting
FRONTIERS Report
Publication date: 2000
ECLOSION au Sénégal: Pourquoi les populations abandonnent la pratique de l'Excision (PDF)
Tostan
Rapport du Projet de Recherche Operationnelle et d'Assistance Technique en Afrique II
Publication date: 1999
Female genital cutting practices in Burkina Faso and Mali and their negative health outcomes (abstract) (PDF)
Jones,Heidi E.; Diop,Nafissatou J.; Askew,Ian; Kabore,Inoussa
Studies in Family Planning 30(3): 219-230
Publication date: 1999
The decline of female circumcision in Egypt: Evidence and interpretation (PDF)
El-Gibaly,Omaima; Ibrahim,Barbara L.; Mensch,Barbara S.; Clark,Wesley H.
Policy Research Division Working Paper (no. 132)
Publication date: 1999
The decline of female circumcision in Egypt: Evidence and interpretation [Arabic] (PDF)
El-Gibaly,Omaima; Ibrahim,Barbara L.; Mensch,Barbara S.; Clark,Wesley H.
Policy Research Division Working Paper (no. 132)
Publication date: 1999
The Tostan story: Breakthrough in Senegal ending female genital cutting [Arabic] (PDF)
FRONTIERS Report
Publication date: 1999
Confirming the extent of female genital cutting (FGC)
Asia and Near East OR/TA Summary
Publication date: 1998
Etude de l'efficacité de la formation du personnel socio-sanitaire dans l'education des client(e)s sur l'excision au Mali (PDF)
Rapport Final du Projet de Recherche Operationnelle et d'Assistance Technique en Afrique II
Publication date: 1998
Evaluation de la prevalence, de la typologie et des complications liees a l'excision chez les patientes frequentant les formations sanitaires du Bazega [Burkina Faso] (PDF)
Rapport Final du Projet de Recherche Operationnelle et d'Assistance Technique en Afrique II
Publication date: 1998
Evaluation de la stratégie de reconversion des exciseuses pour l'eradication des mutilations génitales féminines au Mali (PDF)
Rapport Final du Projet de Recherche Operationnelle et d'Assistance Technique en Afrique II
Publication date: 1998
Mali works to end female genital mutilation
Gouede,Nicholas
Populi 25(1): 2-2
Publication date: 1998
Mutilations génitales féminines (MGF) au Mali: Revue de la litterature et des actions menées
Diallo,Assitan
Rapport Final du Projet de Recherche Operationnelle et d'Assistance Technique en Afrique II
Publication date: 1998
Rapport du seminaire national [au Mali] pour la definition d'une strategie d'eradication de l'excision (PDF)
Rapport du Projet de Recherche Operationnelle et d'Assistance Technique en Afrique II
Publication date: 1998
Confirming the extent of female genital cutting (FGC) [Arabic] (PDF)
Asia and Near East OR/TA Summary
Publication date: 1997
Clinic-based investigation of the typology and self-reporting of FGM in Egypt (PDF)
Asia and Near East Operations Research and Technical Assistance Project Final Report
Publication date: 1996
What's New
- FRONTIERS Legacy Themes: Results and lessons learned from ten years of operations research have been synthesized and grouped into eight major legacy themes. (more)
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