Population Council Research that makes a difference

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Female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C), sometimes also referred to as female circumcision, describes a range of practices involving cutting, removing, and sometimes sewing up external female genitalia for nonmedical reasons. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that between 100 and 140 million girls and women worldwide have undergone FGM/C and that three million girls in Africa alone are at risk each year.

While strongly endorsed in many cultures, FGM/C has no known health benefits. It can cause physical and psychological trauma, both immediately and over the long term, as well as difficulties during childbirth. FGM/C reflects deep-rooted gender-based inequalities, constitutes extreme discrimination against girls and women, and violates numerous human rights.

Population Council focus

The goal of the Council's program of research and technical assistance on FGM/C is to provide program managers, development partners, and advocates with insightful explanations of the practice and empirical evidence on the feasibility and effectiveness of interventions that encourage the abandonment of the practice.

One group of Council studies documents the process by which specific interventions were implemented and evaluates their effectiveness in terms of changes in knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, and behavior.

A second group describes FGM/C as practiced by different sociocultural groups.

Findings from both types of research are increasingly being used to influence policies and programs. The Council also has experience with strengthening research methods, building the capacity of national organizations to implement evidence-based interventions, and informing policies and programs in different contexts.

Read reports drawn from Population Council research and technical assistance activities on our evaluation of interventions, FGM/C and its complications, and OR methods and policy support to encourage elimination of the practice.

Population Council impact

    • The Council was instrumental in creating the International Network to Analyze, Communicate, and Transform the Campaign Against FGC/FGM/FC (INTACT), which promotes high-quality research, disseminates key findings through its website, and strengthens links between researchers and program and policy leaders.
    • Council staff partnered with the NGO Tostan to systematically document and evaluate its groundbreaking community empowerment intervention in Senegal and Burkina Faso. Lessons learned through Council research have informed UN organizations' decisions to recommend this model as a best practice.
    • In Egypt, the Council has undertaken numerous research studies over many years to inform the Government of Egypt and NGOs engaged in seeking an end to the practice.
    • In Kenya, the Council completed a national situation analysis of implemented interventions that supported the Ministry of Health (MOH) in developing national service guidelines for managing medical complications of FGM/C.

Projects

Encouraging the Abandonment of Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C) Among the Somali of Kenya (more)
The Council is conducting research in Kenya to inform the design and implementation of interventions to encourage abandonment of FGM/C.
(1/2009 - 1/2010)
Kenya

Evaluation of Centre Djoliba’s Activities Related to the Fight Against FGM/C in Mali (more)
Council researchers evaluated a human- and child-rights–based approach undertaken by the Centre Djoliba in Mali to encourage the abandonment of female genital mutilation/cutting.
(1/2008 - 8/2008)
Mali

Managing and Preventing Female Genital Cutting (FGC) Among the Somali Community in Kenya (more)
Council research in Kenya worked to strengthen antenatal and delivery services in health facilities used by Somali women, among whom female genital cutting is almost universal; the project also includes a community component to encourage discussion and abandonment of FGC.
(6/2005 - 2/2008)
Kenya

Technical Cooperation with the Ministry of Health (MOH)/German Agency for Technical Co-operation (GTZ) Anti-Female Genital Cutting (FGC) Project in Kenya (more)
Council researchers provided technical assistance in support of eliminating FGM/C in Kenya.
(6/2003 - 10/2007)
Kenya

Resources

EVALUATION OF INTERVENTIONS

Discouraging traditional practitioners

    • Strategies for encouraging the abandonment of female genital cutting in West Africa: Experiences from Senegal, Burkina Faso, and Mali (PDF)
      Diop,Nafissatou J.; Askew,Ian; Abusharaf,Rogaia Mustafa
      from Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives, pp. 125-141
      Publication date: 2006
    • Mali: FGC excisors persist despite entreaties (PDF) 
      FRONTIERS OR Summary (no. 2)
      Publication date: 2000

Engaging health care workers in abandoning FGM/C

    • The decline of female circumcision in Egypt: Evidence and interpretation (PDF; PDF in Arabic)
      El-Gibaly,Omaima; Ibrahim,Barbara L.; Mensch,Barbara S.; Clark,Wesley H.
      Policy Research Division Working Paper (no. 132)
      Publication date: 1999
      (also published in Social Science and Medicine 54(2): 205-220, 2002)
    • Mali: Empower health workers to advocate against female genital cutting (PDF) 
      FRONTIERS OR Summary (no. 11)
      Publication date: 2000
    • Medicalization of female genital cutting among the Abagusii in Nyanza Province, Kenya(PDF) 
      Njue,Carolyne; Askew,Ian
      FRONTIERS Final Report
      Publication date: 2004
    • Kenya: Mobilize health care providers to advocate against FGM/C (PDF) 
      FRONTIERS OR Summary (no. 60)
      Publication date: 2007
    • Study of the effectiveness of training Malian social and health agents in female genital cutting issues and in educating their clients (PDF) 
      Diop,Nafissatou J.; Traore,Fatoumata; Diallo,Habibatou; Traore,Ousmane; Toure,Aissa Haidara; Diallo,Youssouf; Sangare,Madina; Keita,Fatoumata Tandia; Toure,Attaher
      Final report
      Publication date: 2007
    • Strategies for encouraging the abandonment of female genital cutting in West Africa: Experiences from Senegal, Burkina Faso, and Mali (PDF)
      Diop,Nafissatou J.; Askew,Ian; Abusharaf,Rogaia Mustafa
      from Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives, pp. 125-141
      Publication date: 2006
    • Kenya: Training can enhance providers' management of FGM/C and willingness to advocate against the practice (PDF) 
      FRONTIERS OR Summary (no. 71)
      Publication date: 2008
    • Reproductive health update trainings for health workers in North Eastern Province, Garissa (PDF) 
      Kenya Ministry of Health; Population Council
      Publication date: 2006

Generating debate among community members to encourage abandonment of FGM/C

    • Accelerating the abandonment of female genital cutting: Community change to support human rights (PDF) 
      Joyce,Stephanie
      USAID Maximizing Access and Quality (MAQ) Technical Brief
      Publication date: 2006
    • National efforts toward FGM-free villages in Egypt: The evidence of impact (PDF) 
      Barsoum,Ghada; Rifaat,Nadia; El-Gibaly,Omaima; Elwan,Nihal; Forcier,Natalie
      Poverty, Gender, and Youth Working Paper (no. 22)
      Publication date: 2011

    Tostan village education program: Senegal

    • The Tostan story: Breakthrough in Senegal ending female genital cutting (PDF; PDF in Arabic)
      FRONTIERS Report
      Publication date: 2000
    • Evaluation of the long-term impact of the TOSTAN programme on the abandonment of FGM/C and early marriage: Results from a qualitative study in Senegal (PDF) 
      Diop,Nafissatou J.; Moreau,Amadou; Benga,Helene
      FRONTIERS Final Report
      Publication date: 2008
    • The Tostan program: Evaluation of a community-based education program in Senegal (PDF) 
      Diop,Nafissatou J.; Faye,Modou Mbacke; Moreau,Amadou; Cabral,Jacqueline; Benga,Helene; Cisse,Fatou; Mane,Babacar; Baumgarten,Inge; Melching,Molly
      FRONTIERS Final Report
      Publication date: 2004
    • Senegal: Community education program increases dialogue on FGC (PDF) 
      FRONTIERS OR Summary (no. 54)
      Publication date: 2005
    • Senegal: Education and public declarations contribute to Tostan's success (PDF) 
      FRONTIERS OR Summary (no. 70)
      Publication date: 2008

    Tostan village education program: Burkina Faso

    • Experience from a community-based education program in Burkina Faso: The Tostan program (PDF) 
      Ouoba,Djingri; Congo,Zakari; Diop,Nafissatou J.; Melching,Molly; Banza,Baya; Guiella,Georges; Baumgarten,Inge
      FRONTIERS Final Report
      Publication date: 2004
    • Burkina Faso: Community education program scaled-up in Burkina Faso (PDF) 
      FRONTIERS OR Summary (no. 55)
      Publication date: 2005
    • Replication of the TOSTAN Programme in Burkina Faso: How 23 villages participated in a human rights-based education programme and abandoned the practice of female genital cutting in Burkina Faso  (PDF; PDF in French)
      Diop,Nafissatou J.; Bagde,Edmond; Ouoba,Djingri; Melching,Molly
      Publication date: 2003
    • Strategies for encouraging the abandonment of female genital cutting in West Africa: Experiences from Senegal, Burkina Faso, and Mali (PDF)
      Diop,Nafissatou J.; Askew,Ian; Abusharaf,Rogaia Mustafa
      from Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives, pp. 125-141
      Publication date: 2006
    • Analysis of the evolution of the practice of female genital mutilation/cutting in Burkina Faso [Summary in English; full report in French] (PDF) 
      Diop,Nafissatou J.; Congo,Zakari; Ouedraogo,Aina; Sawadogo,Alphosine; Saloucou,Lydia; Tamini,Ida
      FRONTIERS Final Report
      Publication date: 2008
    • Analyse de l'evolution de la pratique de l'excision au Burkina Faso: L'environment institutionel, politique et programmatique de la lutte contre la pratique de l'excision [Analysis of the evolution of the practice of female genital mutilation/cutting in Burkina Faso: Institutional, political, and programmatic environment surrounding female genital mutilation/cutting] (PDF) 
      Diop,Nafissatou J.; Congo,Zakari; Ouedraogo,Aina; Sawadogo,Alphosine; Saloucou,Lydia; Tamini,Ida
      Publication date: 2006
    • Burkina Faso: Political will, law enforcement, and educational campaigns appear to be reducing FGM/C (PDF) 
      FRONTIERS OR Summary (no. 72)
      Publication date: 2008

Alternative rite of passage

    • An assessment of the alternative rites approach for encouraging abandonment of female genital mutilation in Kenya (PDF) 
      Chege,Jane; Askew,Ian; Liku,Jennifer
      FRONTIERS Final Report
      Publication date: 2001
    • Kenya: Community sensitization must precede alternative coming-of-age rite (PDF) 
      FRONTIERS OR Summary (no. 27)
      Publication date: 2002
    • Female genital mutilation practices in Kenya: The role of alternative rites of passage. A case study of Kisii and Kuria districts (PDF) 
      Oloo,Habil; Wanjiru,Monica; Newell-Jones,Katy
      Publication date: 2011
    • Accelerating the abandonment of female genital cutting: Community change to support human rights (PDF) 
      Joyce,Stephanie
      USAID Maximizing Access and Quality (MAQ) Technical Brief
      Publication date: 2006

Community mobilization

    • Kenya: Begin community dialogue on FGM/C by discussing cultural justification (PDF) 
      FRONTIERS OR Summary (no. 59)
      Publication date: 2007
    • A religious oriented approach to addressing female genital mutilation/cutting among the Somali community of Wajir, Kenya (PDF) 
      Sheikh Abdi,Maryam; Askew,Ian
      FRONTIERS Report (updated March 2009)
      Publication date: 2009
    • Kenya: Islamic scholars find no religious justification for FGM/C (PDF) 
      FRONTIERS OR Summary (no. 73)
      Publication date: 2008
    • Toward FGM-free villages in Egypt: A mid-term evaluation and documentation of the FGM-free village project (PDF) 
      Barsoum,Ghada; Rifaat,Nadia; El-Gibaly,Omaima; Elwan,Nihal; Forcier,Natalie
      Publication date: 2009

Integrating FGM/C advocacy into community-based health care programs

    • Testing the effectiveness of integrating community-based approaches for encouraging abandonment of female genital cutting into CARE's reproductive health programs in Ethiopia and Kenya (PDF) 
      Chege,Jane; Askew,Ian; Igras,Susan; Mutesh,Jacinta K.
      FRONTIERS Final Report
      Publication date: 2004
    • At the intersection of health, social well-being and human rights: CARE's experiences working with communities toward abandonment of female genital cutting (FGC) (PDF) 
      Rajadurai,Henrietta; Igras,Susan
      CARE report
      Publication date: 2005
    • Critical analysis of interventions against FGC in Egypt (PDF) 
      Abdel-Tawab,Nahla; Hegazi,Sahar
      FRONTIERS Final Report
      Publication date: 2000
    • Egypt: NGOs need to join forces to end FGC (PDF; PDF in Arabic; PDF in French)
      FRONTIERS OR Summary (no. 14)
      Publication date: 2000

 

FGM/C AND COMPLICATIONS

    • Clinic-based investigation of the typology and self-reporting of FGM in Egypt (PDF) 
      Asia and Near East Operations Research and Technical Assistance Project Final Report
      Publication date: 1996
    • Medicalization of female genital cutting among the Abagusii in Nyanza Province, Kenya (PDF) 
      Njue,Carolyne; Askew,Ian
      FRONTIERS Final Report
      Publication date: 2004
    • Female genital cutting among the Somali of Kenya and management of its complications (PDF) 
      Jaldesa,Guyo; Askew,Ian; Njue,Carolyne; Wanjiru,Monica
      FRONTIERS Final Report
      Publication date: 2005
    • Management of complications, pregnancy, childbirth and the postpartum period in the presence of FGM/C (PDF) 
      Kenya Ministry of Health
      Publication date: 2007
    • Female circumcision in Indonesia: Extent, implications and possible interventions to uphold women's health rights (PDF) 
      Budiharsana,Meiwita P.; Amaliah,Lila; Utomo,Budi; Erwinia
      Research report
      Publication date: 2003
    • Burkina Faso and Mali: Female genital cutting harms women's health (PDF) 
      FRONTIERS OR Summary (no. 10)
      Publication date: 2000

 

OR METHODS/POLICY SUPPORT

    • Using operations research to strengthen programmes for encouraging abandonment of female genital cutting. Report of a consultative meeting on methodological issues for FGC Research, April 9-11, 2002. Nairobi, Kenya (PDF) 
      FRONTIERS Report
      Publication date: 2002
    • The decline of female circumcision in Egypt: Evidence and interpretation (PDF; PDF in Arabic)
      El-Gibaly,Omaima; Ibrahim,Barbara L.; Mensch,Barbara S.; Clark,Wesley H.
      Policy Research Division Working Paper (no. 132)
      Publication date: 1999
      (also published in Social Science and Medicine 54(2): 205-220, 2002)
    • Rapport du seminaire national [au Mali] pour la definition d'une strategie d'eradication de l'excision (PDF) 
      Rapport du Projet de Recherche Operationnelle et d'Assistance Technique en Afrique II
      Publication date: 1998
    • Inconsistent reporting of female genital cutting status in northern Ghana: Explanatory factors and analytical consequences (PDF) 
      Jackson,Elizabeth F.; Akweongo,Patricia; Sakeah,Evelyn; Hodgson,Abraham; Asuru,Rofina; Phillips,James F.
      Studies in Family Planning 34(3): 200-210
      Publication date: 2003
    • Technical assistance to organizations in Guinea seeking to reduce female genital cutting (PDF) 
      Diop,Nafissatou J.
      FRONTIERS Final Report
      Publication date: 2006
    • Contributing towards efforts to abandon female genital mutilation/cutting in Kenya: A situation analysis (PDF) 
      Evelia,Humphres; Sheikh Abdi,Maryam; Njue,Carolyne; Askew,Ian
      Publication date: 2007
    • Review of FRONTIERS program FGC-related activities, February 2007 (PDF) 
      Publication date: 2007